Genetically-encoded photosensitizers KillerRed and KillerOrange represent fluorescent proteins of the GFP family that generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon light irradiation with certain wavelengths: 540-590 nm for KillerRed and 450-540 nm for KillerOrange. The photosensitizers are not toxic before activation by light irradiation.
KillerRed and KillerOrange can be used for selective light-induced killing of the cells. The level of cytotoxic effect and type of the cell death are dependent on the intracellular localization of the photosensitizers, their concentration, light intensity and time of irraditaion. The photosensitizers can be also applied for chromophore-assisted light inactivation (CALI) technology.
Due to the substantially different excitation spectra, the KillerOrange-KillerRed pair can potentially be used to independently ablate two cell populations. This pair also promises the orthogonal optical control of the propagation of signaling cascades either by chromophore-assisted light inactivation of the participating proteins or by triggering cascades with hydrogen peroxide produced by KillerRed and likely by KillerOrange. KillerOrange-KillerRed tandem fusions or combination of various photosensitizers in one cassette may enhance phototoxicity under white light irradiation and may be useful as a research tool in biology.
Red fluorescent protein KillerRed is the first genetically-encoded photosensitizer [Bulina et al., 2006a]. Unlike chemical analogs, KillerRed can be directly expressed by target cells, both individually and in fusion with a target protein. It shows no cell toxic effects before light activation. Upon green or orange light irradiation, KillerRed generates ROS that damage the neighboring molecules.
ArrestRed (the scientific name is H2B-tKR) is a novel optogenetic tool, which can be used to study the roles of specific cell populations in development, regeneration, and carcinogenesis. This is a chimeric protein composed of a tandem version of genetically-encoded photosensitizer KillerRed fused to histone H2B protein [Serebrovskaya et al., 2011]. Expression of ArrestRed in mammalian cells results in correct chromatin labeling and does not interfere with cellular division. The illumination of the ArrestRed expressing cells by intense green light leads to blockage of cell proliferation. The effect of ArrestRed activation lasts for about 24 hours, after that approximately 90% of ArrestRed expressing cells resume division. Repeated light illuminations allow to maintain cells in the non-dividing state for longer periods.
The inhibitory effect of ArrestRed on cell cycle progression is attributed to generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon ArrestRed activation [Bulina et al., 2006]. Light-induced generation of ROS leads to massive damage of genomic DNA and activation of repair machinery. In turn, it causes cell cycle checkpoints activation and cell cycle arrest. After successful DNA reparation interphase cells restore normal proliferation.